This is a working overview of vaccine adjuvant, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2026-06-15 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Thymosin beta-4 is a separate 43-residue peptide that binds actin and participates in cell migration; it shares no sequence similarity with thymosin alpha-1 despite the common family name. Other preparative materials, such as thymosin fraction 5 and thymopoietin, contain distinct mixtures or peptides. The shared thymosin label reflects the tissue of origin used in early purification, not a common structural core. Treating these molecules as interchangeable is a frequent source of confusion in laboratory reports and in popular summaries alike.
Thymosin alpha-1 is a synthetic peptide of 28 amino acid residues that corresponds to a naturally occurring fragment first isolated from thymus tissue. Its chain is acetylated at the amino terminus, a modification that shields the peptide from rapid cleavage by aminopeptidases. The molecule carries a net negative charge at physiological pH and dissolves freely in water. Researchers classify it as an immune-modulating agent rather than a classical hormone, because it acts on several cell types of both the innate and the adaptive immune system.
市售的胸腺素α1通常以冻干粉形式提供，溶解后用于注射。其氨基酸组成包括多个酸性残基，因此在中性pH下带负电荷。该肽可溶于水和生理盐水，但在有机溶剂中溶解度有限。储存条件通常为冻干状态下负20摄氏度，溶解后需冷藏并避免反复冻融。常见的同义词包括胸腺肽α1、thymalfasin和Tα1。
胸腺素α1（thymosin alpha 1，Tα1）是一种由28个氨基酸组成的酸性肽，N端被乙酰化，分子量约为3108道尔顿。该肽最早从牛胸腺组织提取物中分离，属于胸腺素组分5的一个成分。其序列在不同哺乳动物中高度保守，提示其具有基本的生物学功能。名称中的“α1”指其在电泳中的迁移位置，并非表示亚型编号。它既存在于胸腺，也存在于脾脏和淋巴结等免疫组织。
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular mass | About 3.1 kDa | 28 residues, N-terminally acetylated |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilized solid |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Also soluble in aqueous buffers |
| Storage temperature | 2 to 8 °C | Protect from light and moisture |
| Common synonyms | Thymalfasin; Tα1 | Same peptide sequence |
Early work on thymic extracts in the 1960s described a heat-stable acidic fraction containing many polypeptides. Separation of that mixture yielded individual components, and thymosin alpha-1 was named as one of them on the basis of assays for T-cell activity. The first preparations came from calf thymus, while subsequent research and clinical material has been chemically synthesized. Nomenclature in older papers is inconsistent, and the same peptide sometimes appears under different designations, which complicates literature searches.
Most published studies on thymosin alpha-1 report changes in immune measurements rather than clinical outcomes, and findings differ across designs and populations. Whether the peptide signals through one defined receptor or through several less specific interactions remains an open question. Its reported circulation half-life of a few hours complicates comparison of dosing schedules across trials. Mechanistic claims are frequently drawn from isolated cell cultures, and how far those results extend to whole organisms is unresolved.
Thymosin alpha-1 is a synthetic peptide of 28 amino acids whose sequence matches the amino-terminal region of prothymosin alpha. The chain is acetylated at its first residue and contains one disulfide bridge between two cysteine residues, which folds the molecule into a compact loop. Its molecular formula, C129H215N33O55, corresponds to a monoisotopic mass of roughly 3,106 daltons. Material used in laboratories is made by solid-phase synthesis rather than isolated from animal tissue.
Thymosin alpha-1 is a 28-residue peptide first isolated from thymus tissue in the 1970s. It corresponds to the N-terminal portion of thymosin beta-4, from which it is cleaved in vivo. The peptide carries an acetyl group at its N-terminus, a modification that affects its charge and stability. Synthetic material produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis is chemically identical to the natural fragment and is the form used in research and clinical studies.
Laboratory work indicates that the peptide acts on cells of both the innate and adaptive immune systems. Reported effects include signalling through Toll-like receptors on dendritic cells, enhanced T-cell maturation, and increased natural killer cell activity. These actions are described largely from cell-culture and animal experiments, and the precise receptor-level events remain incompletely defined. Studies in humans have generally measured immune markers rather than a single defined molecular target. The resulting picture remains partly descriptive.
Within the immune system, the peptide acts on several cell types rather than a single target. Reported activities include promotion of T-cell maturation, enhancement of natural killer cell activity, and modulation of cytokine production by dendritic cells and macrophages. Some of these effects appear to operate through toll-like receptor signaling, though the precise receptor-level mechanism remains debated. Whether the observed immune changes translate into clinical benefit is a separate question and depends on the indication studied.
The peptide was described in the 1970s as a component of thymic extracts, and early research focused on restoring immune function in immunodeficiency states. A synthetic version entered clinical development in the 1980s and is approved as a drug in several countries for conditions such as chronic hepatitis B and certain immunodeficiencies. Approval status varies widely by jurisdiction, and in the United States it is not an approved therapeutic. Regulatory and clinical positions differ, so statements about efficacy should be tied to specific indications and studies.
Thymosin alpha-1 is a synthetic peptide of 28 amino acids, corresponding to the N-terminal fragment of prothymosin alpha. Its sequence begins with acetylation at the N-terminus, a modification that affects stability and receptor interaction. The peptide is acidic, with a calculated isoelectric point near 4.2, and carries no disulfide bonds, so its secondary structure is largely flexible in solution. Molecular mass is approximately 3108 daltons. The native form was first isolated from bovine thymus tissue, while pharmaceutical material is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis.
Thymosin alpha 1 was identified in 1977 as a component of thymosin fraction 5, a heterogeneous preparation used in early studies of thymic function. Investigators purified the active material and determined its amino acid sequence, which enabled chemical synthesis. Work in the following decades concentrated on T-cell maturation and immune reconstitution in animals and small human cohorts. Early preparations varied in composition, so results from that period are difficult to compare with studies using defined synthetic peptide.
Clinical research has examined the peptide in chronic hepatitis B and C, as a vaccine adjuvant, and in sepsis and oncology settings. Findings across trials are mixed; some report changes in selected immune markers, while others find no clear clinical benefit. Many studies are small and define outcomes differently, which limits comparison. Regulatory approval is confined to a few countries, and the compound is not an approved drug in the United States or most of Europe.
Overall evidence quality varies considerably. A large share of published reports come from single centers, rely on surrogate immunological markers, or lack adequate control groups. Systematic reviews have highlighted this heterogeneity as a barrier to pooling results. Open questions include which patients, if any, might benefit, what treatment duration is appropriate, and whether any effect is independent of standard care. The peptide is often described as an immune modulator rather than a therapy for one disease, which complicates confirmatory trial design.
Secretin is a hormone that regulates water homeostasis throughout the body and influences the environment of the duodenum by regulating secretions in the stomach, pancreas, and liver. It is a peptide hormone produced in the S cells of the duodenum, which are located in the intestinal glands. In humans, the secretin peptide is encoded by the SCT gene. Secretin helps regulate the pH of the duodenum by inhibiting the secretion of gastric acid from the parietal cells of the stomach and stimulating the production of bicarbonate from the ductal cells of the pancreas. It also stimulates the secretion of bicarbonate and water by cholangiocytes in the bile duct, protecting it from bile acids by controlling the pH and promoting the flow in the duct. Meanwhile, in concert with secretin's actions, the other main hormone simultaneously issued by the duodenum, cholecystokinin (CCK), stimulates the gallbladder to contract, delivering its stored bile. Prosecretin is a precursor to secretin, which is present in digestion. Secretin is stored in this unusable form, and is activated by gastric acid. This indirectly results in the neutralisation of duodenal pH, thus ensuring no damage is done to the small intestine by the aforementioned acid. In 2007, secretin was discovered to play a role in osmoregulation by acting on the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and kidney.
==== Single-drug formulations ==== Adapalene (CD-271; Differin) – retinoid (retinoic acid receptor agonist) Azelaic acid (BAY39-6251; Finacea; Skinoren) – undefined mechanism of action Benzoyl peroxide (Bepio; M6050; M605101) – undefined mechanism of action Clascoterone (Breezula; Winlevi; CB-03-01; cortexolone 17α-propionate) – antiandrogen (androgen receptor antagonist) Clindamycin (ResiDerm A; Zindaclin) – lincosamide antibiotic Dapsone topical (Aczone; Atrisone) – sulfone antibiotic Doxycycline hyclate (Acticlate; Monodox; AQ101) – tetracycline antibiotic Isotretinoin (Absorica; Accutane; CIP-isotretinoin; Epuris; Lisacne-CIP) – retinoid (retinoic acid receptor agonist) Minocycline (DFD-10; DFD-29; Emrosi; Minolira) – tetracycline antibiotic Minocycline foam (Amzeeq; FMX-102; FMX-103; FMX-101; FXFM-244; Zilxi) – tetracycline antibiotic Nadifloxacin topical – fluoroquinolone antibiotic Ozenoxacin (Dubine; GF-001001-00; M-5120; M-512101; M-512102; Ozadub; Ozanex; T-3912; Xepi; Zebiax) – quinolone antibiotic Sarecycline (Seysara; P-0005672; WC-3035) – narrow-spectrum tetracycline antibiotic Solubilised benzoyl peroxide (CLENZIderm M.D.; SoluCLENZ Rx Gel) – undefined mechanism of action Tazarotene topical (AGN-190299; Avage; Fabior; Suretin; Tazorac; Zorac) – retinoid (retinoic acid receptor agonist) Tretinoin (Acnisdin Retinoico; All-trans retinoic acid; Arotinoid; Avita; Dermojuventus; Loderm Retinoico; NSC 122758; Retinoic acid; Retirides; Vesanoid; Vitamin A acid; Vitamin-A Acid; Vitanol) – retinoid (retinoic acid receptor agonist) Tretinoin lotion (Altreno; IDP-121) – retinoid (retinoic acid receptor agonist) Trifarotene (Aklief; CD-5789) – retinoid acid receptor gamma (RAR-γ) agonist
CoQ10 is a component of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC), where it plays a role in oxidative phosphorylation, a process required for the biosynthesis of adenosine triphosphate, the primary energy source of cells. CoQ10 is a lipophilic molecule that is located in all biological membranes of the human body and is a component for the synthesis of ATP and a life-sustaining cofactor for the three complexes (complex I, complex II, and complex III) of the ETC in the mitochondria. CoQ10 has a role in the transport of protons across lysosomal membranes to regulate pH in lysosome functions. The mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation process occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells. This membrane is highly folded into structures called cristae, which increase the surface area available for oxidative phosphorylation. CoQ10 plays a role in this process as an essential cofactor of the ETC located in the inner mitochondrial membrane and serves the following functions:
== Sponsorship == In April 2022, the team announced their sponsorship with car retailer Cazoo starting in July 2022. The Cazoo brand is visible on the front of the new jerseys as the team's main sponsor. In addition to the Bundesliga professionals, Cazoo appeared as shirt sponsor and advertising partner of the second team of SC Freiburg in the third division and as co-sponsor of the Freiburg Football School, and became visible at all matches of the SC junior teams. Cazoo also became a co-sponsor and sleeve sponsor of SC Freiburg's Bundesliga women.
== List of countries by production == In 2023, world production of green coffee was 11.1 million tonnes, led by Brazil with 30.8% of the total. Other major producers were Vietnam (17.7%) and Indonesia (6.8%). 41% of the world's coffee was produced in South America, 27% in South-East Asia, 17% in Africa and 10% in Central America. A total of 81 countries and territories were recorded by the FAO as producing coffee in 2023, with 53 producing more than 1,000 tonnes and 36, listed below, producing more than 10,000 tonnes. The smallest with a known production volume was the Cook Islands, producing just 370kg of coffee.α
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
These types of submarines were first used during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. Due to the blockade at Port Arthur, the Russians sent their submarines to Vladivostok, where by 1 January 1905 there were seven boats, enough to create the world's first "operational submarine fleet". The new submarine fleet began patrols on 14 February, usually lasting for about 24 hours each. The first confrontation with Japanese warships occurred on 29 April 1905 when the Russian submarine Som was fired upon by Japanese torpedo boats, but then withdrew.
Bont possesses no superhuman abilities, but he occasionally used Mutant Growth Hormone, a substance that temporarily enhanced his speed and strength and caused his eyes to emit a green glow. Sigourney Weaver portrays a female version of Alexander Bont, primarily known as Alexandra, in The Defenders. This version is the leader of the Hand. Alexandra is described as an "adversary" rather than a villain and was intended to be portrayed sympathically as a supporting character in Elektra Natchios' story. Alexandra is one of the five "fingers" of the Hand, who all gained immortality using the healing powers of qi. Following the death of Elektra, Alexandra resurrects her to create the ancient weapon Black Sky, which is prophesied to destroy all enemies of the Hand. Alexandra intends to use Elektra to steal the Iron Fist from Danny Rand. However, Elektra regains her memories of her previous life and kills Alexandra, claiming leadership of the Hand. http://www.marvunapp.com/Appendix4/bontalexander.htm http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1784594/
To enhance sensitivity, the secondary capillary of the nano-DESI probe can be equipped with a nebulizer, which takes benefit of the Venturi effect, facilitating the aspiration of the liquid. This enables the secondary probe to be longer, while still maintaining stable electrospray, thereby simplifying the setup process. Moreover, it offers greater versatility in nano-DESI solvent selection, allowing water to be used as an extraction solvent. This expands the technique’s chemical coverage and enhances the customization of solvent components for selective extraction of polar compounds. Additionally, the capillaries can be integrated into a custom 3D-printed cassette, creating a convenient plug-and-play device.
Measurements of 137Cs exposure from autopsies performed on 52 children who died of various causes found that the concentration of 137Cs was highest in the thyroid (2054±288 Bq/kg), adrenals (1576±290 Bq/kg), and pancreas (1359±350 Bq/kg), and lowest in the brain (385±72 Bq/kg) and liver (347±61 Bq/kg). Accidental ingestion of caesium-137 can be treated with Prussian blue (FeIII4[FeII(CN)6]3), which binds to it chemically and reduces its biological half-life to 30 days.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Bone mineral density === Bone mineral density (BMD) is a measure commonly used to quantify bone health. A lower BMD value indicates an increased risk of an osteoporosis or a fracture. There is a large range of factors influencing BMD. Protein consumption has shown to be beneficial for bone density by providing amino acid substrates necessary for bone matrix formation. It is also thought that blood concentration of the bone formation stimulant, Insulin-like Growth Factor-I (IGF-I), is increased from high protein consumption and parathyroid hormone (PTH), a bone resorption stimulant, is decreased. Although protein has shown to be beneficial for increasing bone mass, or bone mineral density, there is no significant association between protein intake and fracture incidence. In other words, a low BMD can be predictive of osteoporosis and increased fracture risk, but a higher BMD does not necessarily mean better bone health. High BMD is also correlated with other health issues. For example, a higher BMD has also been associated with increased risk of breast cancer.
{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\sigma }}={\cfrac {2}{J}}~{\boldsymbol {F}}{\cfrac {\partial W}{\partial {\boldsymbol {C}}}}{\boldsymbol {F}}^{\textsf {T}}\quad {\text{where}}\quad J:=\det {\boldsymbol {F}}\,.}
It was traditionally assumed that the first reptiles retained an anapsid skull inherited from their ancestors. This type of skull has a skull roof with only holes for the nostrils, eyes and a pineal eye. The discoveries of synapsid-like openings (see below) in the skull roof of the skulls of several members of Parareptilia (the group containing most of the amniotes traditionally referred to as "anapsids"), including lanthanosuchoids, millerettids, bolosaurids, some nycteroleterids, some procolophonoids and at least some mesosaurs made it more ambiguous and it is currently uncertain whether the ancestral amniote had an anapsid-like or synapsid-like skull. These animals are traditionally referred to as "anapsids", and form a paraphyletic basic stock from which other groups evolved. Very shortly after the first amniotes appeared, a lineage called Synapsida split off; this group was characterized by a temporal opening in the skull behind each eye giving room for the jaw muscle to move. These are the "mammal-like amniotes", or stem-mammals, that later gave rise to the true mammals. Soon after, another group evolved a similar trait, this time with a double opening behind each eye, earning them the name Diapsida ("two arches"). The function of the holes in these groups was to lighten the skull and give room for the jaw muscles to move, allowing for a more powerful bite.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a 28-residue synthetic peptide studied as an immune-modulating agent and approved as a drug in some countries. The sequence matches a naturally occurring fragment isolated from thymus tissue. It is not a hormone in the endocrine sense.
The name traces back to thymosin fraction 5, a crude thymus extract examined in the 1970s. Individual peptides in that mixture were labeled with Greek letters, and alpha-1 was one of them. The international nonproprietary name thymalfasin was assigned later.
No. Thymosin beta-4 contains 43 residues and binds actin, while thymosin alpha-1 contains 28 residues and acts on immune cells. The two sit in a historical naming group but share no sequence similarity, and they are not substitutes for one another.
它不是经典的内分泌激素，而是一种免疫调节肽。其作用主要通过局部免疫细胞间的信号传递实现，而非经血液循环作用于远隔器官。